JAPANESE AMERICAN HISTORY
READING:
In 1941, the majority of Asian Americans lived in a small geographic
area: the Territory of Hawaii and a few Western states. Of the
Japanese American population, over 150,000 lived in Hawaii (one
third of its total population) and 120,000 lived in the West Coast
states of California, Oregon and Washington.
At the outbreak of the war Japanese Americans in Hawaii and the
mainland
(term used to refer to the continental U.S.) experienced intense
suspicion and distrust. In Washington D.C. the fate of Japanese
Americans living in these areas was debated. In Hawaii, the government
settled for incarcerating Japanese American business, political
and religious leaders in a camp in Arkansas for the duration of
the war. The remaining Japanese Americans in Hawaii remained in
their homes and continued their jobs.
Japanese Americans living on the West Coast experienced a more
drastic government reaction. Like those in Hawaii, community leaders,
such as organization and religious leaders, martial arts instructors
and language teachers, were arrested immediately without charge.
They were sent to separate camps in Texas and North Dakota. All
of these men were denied due process of law (the legally prescribed
method for determining whether a person is guilty of a civil or
criminal offense). Families often were left with no information
about their husbands and fathers. For many, separation lasted
for years.
The vast majority of Americans in the 1940’s had little
contact with Japanese Americans. The media fed upon pre-existing
prejudice and wartime hysteria. This led to the signing of Executive
Order 9066 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on February
19, 1942. Soon signs began to appear in Japanese American communities
warning of an impending move. In some cases, people were given
only a few days to liquidate their property. Families could only
save items that they could carry.
ANTI-ASIAN SENTIMENTS RUN DEEP
The government actions taken against Japanese Americans from
the West Coast did not occur in a vacuum. Early in the history
of the nation, anti-colored bias was expressed with the passage
of the Act of 1790. The Act decreed that “any alien, being
a free white person who shall reside within the limits of the
jurisdiction of the United States for a term of two years, may
be admitted to become a citizen thereof.” The Act of 1790
effectively denied citizenship to any Asian immigrants until 1952.
Historically, Asians immigrants have experienced prejudice and
discrimination. The Chinese were the first Asians to immigrate
to the United States in considerable numbers. Hawaii’s sugar
plantations were some of their original work destinations. Their
contributions to the completion of the transcontinental railroad
in 1862 are well documented. However in 1882, the Chinese Exclusion
Act barred further immigration.
RECRUITED WORKERS
To fill the need for cheap labor, workers from Japan were recruited
in the 1890’s. The Issei,
Japanese men and women immigrants, were secured to do the rigorous
work of growing and harvesting sugar cane in Hawaii. Some of the
Japanese immigrants settled in California and other mainland states.
The Nisei,
children of the Issei, were American born and therefore
citizens. Some Issei parents sent their children back
to Japan to receive their education. Known as Kibei,
these children returned to the U.S. educated in Japanese language
and culture.
The majority of the Japanese in Hawaii remained on sugar plantations.
In time, the Japanese became the largest immigrant group among
the many ethnic groups who came to the Hawaiian islands. A unique
“pidgin” English, a combination of English, Hawaiian,
Japanese and Filipino developed. On the mainland, the Issei initially
worked as field hands but gradually began to farm on their own.
They came to dominate the growing of certain produce such as strawberries.
Being only a small minority of the West Coast population they
tried to assimilate within the population. By working hard, a
number of Issei became successful farmers and small business
owners.
By 1914, new anti-immigration legislation successfully stopped
all immigration from Japan. Discriminatory state laws also targeted
the Issei. California, for example, passed two Alien
Land Laws in 1913 and 1920 that prohibited “aliens ineligible
to citizenship” from owning land. Discrimination in the
workplace, housing and education were also common experiences
for the Issei and their Nisei children.
REMOVAL AND INTERNMENT OF JAPANESE AMERICANS
Those who wanted to get rid of Japanese Americans from the West
Coast got their wish in 1942. Executive Order 9066 was used by
the military to remove and imprison 120,000 Americans of Japanese
ancestry, most of them American citizens. Italian and German Americans,
however, were not treated in a similar way. Eventually, ten camps
(referred to as concentration,
internment
or relocation
camps) administered by the War
Relocation Authority were created in desolate areas of the
country. Approximately 10,000 people, a small town, were housed
in each camp.
Internees suffered not only economic loss, but the loss of dignity
and privacy. Barracks were hastily constructed for housing. Each
family lived in one room. Each day included trips to bathrooms
located in separate buildings and meals in a communal mess hall
under the watchful eyes of armed guards. For work performed in
the camps, internees were paid salaries that ranged from $12.00
to $19.00 per month. Parents tried to maintain a sense of normalcy
for the sake of their children. Gardens and schools were built.
Activities were created to keep children busy but in reality family
life was gone.
Though the last camp was closed in 1946, World War II and the
camp experience continued to be the landmark event in the lives
of Issei and Nisei generations. The heroic actions and tremendous
sacrifice of the young Nisei soldiers serving in the 100th/442nd
and the linguists of the Military
Intelligence Service paved the way for the acceptance and
success of the next generations of Japanese Americans.
ACTIVITIES
Framework Standards Context California Standards
Grade 11
11.7 Students analyze the American participation in World War
II.
